Oxford Urdu Dictionary

The Modern Medical Science: a Trip By History
The history of Medical Science is interested very. The centuries before the coming of Islam that the Arabs had their own system of medicine in the form of a grasses and the small trees ('Aqaqir waae™l hasha¤ae™ish) that was based on the medicine of Chaldean and of their own experience. Their first doctor was Luqmacn and the second Khuzaim. Little by little, Greek medicine attracted their attention. Harith Ibn Kaldah was the first one to introduce Greek medicine to the Arabs. After that some books began writing on the subject. Tiazauq composed some treaties on the pharmacology, and Khalid Ibn Yazid Ibn Moved awiyah obtained some books of Greek and Egyptien translated in Arab. This was the condition during the rule of Banu 'Umayyah. But the medicine science prospered during the reign of the ae˜Abbasis.1
First the Moslems took disposals for the translation of Greek, Indian, Persian and Chaldean the medical works in Arab, and won thus the knowledge of the medical systems of these nations. But they did not accept as such as these systems had offered. They did the research in the various branches of the medical science, and accepted what was found to be useful. What's more, they did a lot of valid new discoveries in the theory and the medicine practice. , Combining then their discoveries and equipment sorted of these systems, they evolved a completely new system of medicine. When the Europeans learned this system of the Moslems, generally by the Arabic medical literature, they called it properly Arabic Medicine, recognizing on the a hand their debt to the Moslems, and on the other to put a testimony seal to the gigantic and original contributions of the Moslem scientists to medicine. Since the medical knowledge principally was borrowed Greeks, the new system was named by the Moslems of the Under Continent Tibb Asian of the south-e one-Yuna£ni (Greek Medicine). This act gives a proof of the Moslem spirit of liberalism.
When the Moslem world produced theoreticians and medical practiciens the more of the distinguished in the history, the medicine state was in very poor Europe. The Moslems that entered the key with the doctors of Frank during the Crusades expressed the a lot of scorns for their ignorance and their barbaric practices. Thabit, a Christian doctor of the Usa£mah of Syrian prince, observed two cases (C. 1140) finishing inevitably because of barbaric surgery of a Frank. The Islamic medical school was done for the centuries in all the western countries, notably in France, and the Arabic medical writings formed the medical European literature kernel. Until the 17th century that these writings were incluses in the programs of the European universities. In France Arabic Medicine was studied of 1410 to 1789. In Comes in 1520, and, to Frankfurt on the Order in 1588, the medical program always principally was based on Ibn Sina¤ "Qa£nun" and on the ninth book of al-ra£zi 'Al mansuri.' The introduction of this science in Europe is an interesting chapter of history.
According to Dr. Robert Briffault, a learned one of the eminent west, the Allopathic system of medicine is the coming from Arabic Medicine. It notices:
"The Pharmacopoeia created by the Arabs is practically that that but for the recent synthetic one and preparations of organotherapic, is in the usage to the current one; our common drugs, as Nux vomica, Senna, the rhubarb, aconite, the gentiane, the myrrhe, calomel, and the structure of our prescriptions, belong to Arabic Medicine"
It unveils also as the medical schools of Montpellier, Padua and Pisa were based on the model of that of Cordoue under the doctors of Jew induced in the Arabic schools, and the Qa£na¼n of Ibn Sina and the Surgery of Abu' l-qasim Al zahrawi, remained the books of text of medical science through Europe until the seventeenth century. 2
The Arabs had a just knowledge of anatomy as the it is evident names of the internal and external organs of the human and animal bodies, found in the literature of Arabia pred-islamique. When they made the acquaintance the Greek anatomical descriptions, they did the investigations on them, pointed out a lot of errors in the work of their predecessors, and did a lot of fresh discoveries in this field. To verify the Greek anatomical ideas prevailing at that very moment Yuhanna Ibn Ma¤sawaih did monkey dissection that were furnished for him by the order of the 'Abbasi the Calif Mutasim Billah. After this verification it composed his work on the anatomy. The works of some doctors and some Moslem surgeons, as Tashrih Al mansuri by Mansur Ibn Muhammad contains illustrations of human organs, that are not found in the Greek works. These illustrations clarify also the knowledge of Moslems practice anatomy. 3
In the opposition to Galen that thought that the human skull consisted in seven bones, the learned Moslems held that it had eight. They believed that there was ossicles in the ear, that facilitates the audience capacity. 4 The work of the Moslem doctors in the physiology field, also, is completely valid. For example, Ibn Nafis Al qarshi of Damask explained the theory of the circulation minor of blood three centuries before William Harvey to that this discovery is attributed. Al qarshi suggested also as the food be fuel for the discussion of the heat of the body. Abu' l-faraj held that there are canals in the nerves by that the sensations and the movements are transmitted.
The contributions of Moslems in the bacteriology field are completely revolutionary. According to Browne, Moslem were completely conscious of the theory of germs. Ibn Sina£ was the first one to declare that the physical secretion is contaminated by the earthly bodies, foreigners and dedgoutants before to obtain the infection. Ibn Kha¤timah of the 14th century declared that the man is surrounded by the meticulous bodies that between the human body and the cause disease. In the same century when the big plague ravaged the world, and the principal causes of him, based on the superstition, were said to be the Jews or the volcanic eruptions or the birth of a calf with two heads, two Moslem doctors, Ibn Khatib (1313-1374) and Ibn Kha¤timah (1323-1369), wrote over treaties that were based on the scientific observations. 5
Some Moslems gave also new suggestions as for the disease treatment. In this connection Abu' 1 Hasan, the doctor of Adud Al daulah introduced the bleeding process as a treatment of cerebral hemorrhage that is often because of tension. Al razi suggested nourishing of the food for the treatment of general weakness. The Moslem doctors were the first one to use the stomach tube for the execution of gastric washing in the case to poison gas. They were completely conscious of the principles of centuries of opotherapy before Browne Sequard to that this treatment method is attributed. To said Ibn Bishr Ibn 'Abdus suggested that the food and the light cold one producing medicines for the treatment of general paralysis and of paralysis of the face. Ibn Al wa£fid gave the accent on the disease treatment by the food check. They discovered the treatment for jaundice epidemic, and suggested a reasonable quantity of opium as a mania treatment. For epistaxis they suggested pouring it cold water on the head. 6
The investigations of Moslem doctors on the causes, the symptoms and the effects of some diseases are extremely remarkable. Al razi was it the first doctor to differentiate between Smallpox and the measles. His Greek, Indian and the other predecessors was incapable to differentiate between these two diseases. Abu' l-hasan Al tabari was the first one to consider the tuberculosis as an infiltration, and declared that it affects not only the lungs but also the other organs. The Brilliant disease, the discovery that of which is attributed to Dr. Brilliant Richard of the 18th century, was in fact discover by the centuries of al-samarqandi of al-vacarme of Najib before him. 7
In the surgery science, also, the a lot of advancements was done by Moslems. They introduced the agents that cauterize in surgery. They were the first one to apply the cooling method to stop the hemorrhage, and begin the to sew up injuries with the silky sons. Ibn Zuhr (the 11st century) gave a description completes operation of tracheotomy, that was not mentioned by the Greeks. Abu' l-qasim Al zahrawi invented a lot of surgical instruments illustrated in his Al tasrif of book. In the same book it described the operation methods for the various diseases. While to describe the operations of skull and its parties, the Moslem surgeons did a mention of the operation of luette and of nasal polynus. They used the method of tonsillectomy and paracentesis of the drum of the ear. They were also the first one to execute the operation of cavity of peritoneal, and use the method of Trocar and Canula for the special drainage. They used anesthetic substances in surgery. While to execute the major operations they kept their unconscious patients for the long time, sometimes even for the days. 8
The Moslem opticians did the valid and original work in the treatment of diseases of eye and in eye surgery. All the operations of the eye that are executed these days were executed by the Moslem surgeons of Act Medieval. The method of the operation of cataract first was described by them. They knew that the cataract was because of the inability of the lens of eye. Ibn Al haitham described the eye structure. It gave the revolutionary ideas as considers the view mechanism, and the various described types of lenses. Later on these descriptions used the basis for the spectacle invention used as a remedy for such eye diseases as myopia and long sightedness. The Moslems wrote valid books on the treatment of diseases of eye.
The art of profession of midwife extremely was developed by Moslems. In this connection Abu' l-qasim Al zahrawi was the first one to describe the position of Walcher. It invented the method of Cranioclasty for the delivery of dead fetus and it it applied himself. A book authorized Al atha¤r Al ba£qiyyah in the University of Edinburgh contains an illustration showing to an Arabic doctor executes the operation of Caeserian. A number again drugs and of therapeutic agents was discovered by Moslems, and a lot of grasses notably those of India were included in their practices. The rhubarb pharmacology, senna and the camphor were discovered, and hyoscyamus was used by them for the medical goals.
The Moslems introduced pharmacopoeia in the medical science. Ibn Sahl was the first one to write a book on pharmacopoeia. The recipes contained in the writings of daae™ud Al antaki (the 16th century) and of others were adopted by the European pharmacists. The Arabic pharmacology survived in Europe to the beginning of the nineteenth century. Certain of the original Arab or persian names of some drugs and some chemical products, as the syrup of the Sharab of Arabic word, rab' for a special mixture of juice of honey and fruit, and the drink of the julla¤b of persian word' (a special aromatic drink) were included in the European languages.
The Moslems wrote of the their predecessors to the books on these branches of medical science on which did not do. Among such books Ya¼hann Ibn Maswaih delivers it on the la¨pre, the al-razi books on Smallpox and the measles, Aba¼ Ma¼sa¤ Ibn 'the book of Isa£ on the piles, and the book of the Luqa of Ibn of Qusta on the sudden death is extremely valid.
Time of the Banu Umayyah governs the Moslems developed the hospital institution. During the reign of the 'Abbasi the Calif Hara¼n Al" Rashid, a hospital was constructed to Baghdad, that was the first one in the history of this city. A lot of new hospitals were established soon next. Certain of them had their own gardens in which these the medicinal plants were cultivated. The big hospitals had medical schools attached for them. Next to such hospitals there were several traveling hospitals in the Moslem world. 9
The Moslem hospitals used the models for the confirmed hospitals in the different parties of Europe notably in Italy and France. The hospital establishment through Europe in the 14th century was partially because of the influence of Crusades. The first hospital to Paris, Fifteen Twenty, was established by Louis IX after his return of the Crusades of 1254-60. The Crossings were inspired by the magnificent hospitals (bimaris-bronze) al-vacarme of Nur of leader of Selja¼q to Damask, and those of the al-mansur of Sultan of Mamluk to Cairo.
The practical education was given to the Moslem medical students in the hospitals. It is said that there as no arrangement for such education in Alexandria before the Moslem era. According to Al razi, a doctor had, satisfies two conditions for the selection: first, it should well be lapsed into the new literature and medical old, and deuxia¨mement, it must have worked in the hospitals as a house surgeon. 10
The second 'Al mansa¼r of Calif of Abba£si called for Baghdad of Jundishapur a Christian doctor of persian origin, Jar Ibn Bakhtyishu named that remained loaded with the hospital of this city until 765-6. His arrival to Baghdad with two of its students marked the beginning of a big activity in the medicine field. It seems to be the most first member of the family of Bakhtyishu celebrates medical practiciens. This family remained attached to the court of a number of 'the califs of Abba£si, and exercised a big influence on the progress of Moslem medicine in the eighth and ninth centuries. Jar is said to have been the first one to translate some medical works in Arab. The translations were done by the order of the Calif. 11
In the ninth century of the Christian era that the biggest medical activity was showed by the Arab talks about the peuplades. The a lot of activities was devoted to the medical Greek work translation in Syrian and in Arab. All the translators were Christian. One of them, ibn-sahda translated some works of Hippocrates in Arab. Jibril Ibn Bakhtyishu (d. 828-29) frequented the translators, and worked hard to obtain from the Greek medical texts. It wrote also some medical works to him. It did a big contribution to the science progress to Baghdad. It was the member more eminent of the family of Bakhtyishu. A Christian Doctor, Salmawaih Ibn Bunan. (D. 839-40) helped Huna¡in to translate the works of medical Galen. Salmawaih showed that the aphrodisiac usage, therefore common in the East, was dangerous. It prospered under Al-Ma¤ae™ma¼n. Later it became the doctor in ordinary to Al-Mutasim.12
Another translator, Ibn Masawaih (d. 857) translated various Greek medical works in Syrian. Its own medical writings were in Arab. His treaty on the ophthalmology called Daghal Al 'Ayn (the eye disorder) is the most first work again existing in Arab on the subject. 13
Another important translator of Greek medical works in Arab was Ayyub Al ruhawi, a contemporary one of the 'Al mutawakkil of Califs of Abbasi and Al-Muae™tazz (d.869). The translation of 35 works of Galen, a Greek doctor, is attributed for him. 14
If moved away as the doctors of the ninth century ate interested, an important the one was Abu' l-hasan 'Ali Ibn Sahl Ibn Rabban Al tabari. It was also physicist, and the knowledge had Bible. It had been born in Tabaristan where it was brings. It belonged to a Jewish family, but it accepted Islam to the hand of the 'Al of Calif d'Abbsi-Muae™tasim, that did him his sycophant. Ali Ibn Rabban is the author of a lot of works, but his principal work is an encyclopedia called Firdaus Al hikmah. It principally treats with medicine, but also with philosophy, the meteorology, the zoologie, embryology, psychology and the astronomy. The this especially is based on Greek and the Hindu sources, and contains a summary of Hindu medicine to the end. Its other medical works are on hygiene, and on the usage of things of food, the drinks and grasses. 15
The doctor more glorious of the ninth century was Aba¼ Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariyya Al ra zi, (Latin Rhazes). It was the biggest practicien of the Means and probably Acts the biggest Moslem doctor. It was also philosopher and the chemist. It had been born in Ray (Persian); called therefore Al razi. The date back to his birth is uncertain. It is dead in 923. In his first Al razi of age was very avid music, and played the flute ('Ud). When it was ripe age that it wished to obtain the medicine knowledge. His interest in medicine was excited by an old pharmacist or a distributor that it met frequently in the hospital. To last Al razi became such a doctor expert that it was named as the principal doctor to the hospital of Ray. Al razi uniformly attended the hospital, surrounded by its students. When sick any came for him it first was examined by its students. If the case was found to be complicated, it was passed to Al razi.
Al ra£zi served also principal doctor of the hospital of Baghdad that was been founded to his own counsel. When Al ra£zi was asked to choose some suitable site to construct the hospital there, it obtained some pieces of suspended meat in the various regions of the city. The place where damaged meat in the last one was chosen as the site for the hospital.
Al ra£zi was the author of 113 major and 28 works minors and of two poems. Certain of them were published in the original one, and translated in the languages of Latin and vernacular. The non published works of al-ra£zi are present in the libraries of Asia and of Europe. Most of its works were lost, but of those that are again existing that the one can estimate the depth of his knowledge and his capacity. Its writings are full of observations personal and of valid information. The most important one of its monographs is a treaty on Smallpox and the measles. This work is a literature medical Moslem masterpiece. It was translated in the Latin and the English, and appreciated a big popularity in Europe. It was published in the original one, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.
One of treaties of al-ra£zi is on the rock in the kidney and the urinary vessie. It was published in the original one, with a French translation in Leyden in 1896.
The book more important of al-ra£zi is Al ha¤wi (Continens). The this is a huge encyclopedia of medicine, that contains a lot of extracts of Greek and Hindu medical works. It was translated in the Latin. The anatomical party was translated in French and published with the original Arabic text.
Another important medical work of this author is the Kitab Al mansa¼ri (Latin Almansoris) named after Mansa¼r Ibn Ishaq, the leader of Khurasan, that frequented Al ra£zi while it lived in Persian. This book principally is based on Greek medicine. The French translation of the first party with the Arabic text was published. His party of ophthalmologic was translated in German. The second party of the book treats temperaments and the physiology. This subject was extremely big importance during the Means Acts.
Al ra£zi did a valid contribution to the gynaecology, obstetric surgery and Ophtalmique. It did also a considerable contribution to the development of Chemistry, theoretical and practices. It was the first one to apply Chemistry to the drug preparation. It is the ancestor of the European iatrochemists of the 16th century. 16
Al ra£zi did some discoveries in the field of medical science, and invented some drugs. It declared that a tart question is found in the stomach. It was the first one to introduce to wet surrounds for the treatment of apoplexy and apply cold water in typhoid. It invented the mercury ointment. 17
Al ra£zi' was a brilliant and conscious doctor. It followed Hippocrates, and was free of the sensations of prejudice and stubbornness. During the reign of the Al of Calif-Muae™tadid (829-902), his stable master, his akhi of Ibn of Yaae™qub of Yusuf of Aba¼ Hiza¤m wrote a treaty on the equitation that is authorized as Kitab Al furusiyyah. It contains some rudiments of veterinary art. The this is the first Arabic work of his type.
Under the clientele of Bana¼ Musa¤ (the sons of Musa¤) and the al-mutawakkil of Calif a Christian doctor, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq translated the medical works and scientific other Greeks. Banu Musa¤ employed it for the acquisition and the translation of Greek manuscripts. The Calif named it also in a school confirmed by him, and ordered it to obtain these manuscripts translate under his check. It became the first translator of medical works. The translation done by Hunayn and its disciples were a boundary in the history of the development of science. Hunayn wrote also a lot medical and astronomical worko. 18
In the tenth century almost the whole creation on medicine was done in the Moslem world, but not by only Moslems. Someone not Moslem, also, did the valid contributions to the development of this science. But all wrote in the Arab. Towards the environment of the tenth century, the number of doctors grew surprisingly big. The research on medicine was executed through the Moslem world. In Moslem Spain the work on medicine was same level as in the domain of Caliphate of the east. Sometimes it it was even superior thereto.
The al-mahdi of Allah of Ubaid of Calif of Fatimi (908-934), ordered his doctor Ishaq Al-Isra£ one' ili, a doctor and a Jewish philosophers to compose some medical writings in Arab. It wrote a treaty medico-philosophique on the elements and another on the definitions. Its principal works are on the fever, the simple drugs, the temperaments, dentology and the urine. The last work seems to be treated them medieval the most cared ones for on the subject. These writings were translated in Latin, Hebrew and Spanish. They exercised a big influence on the medicine progress in Europe.l9
A big Moslem doctor of the tenth century was Aba¼ Sina£n Ibn Tha£bit Ibn Qurrah. It was also mathedmaticien and the astronomer. It prospered to Baghdad where it is dead in 943. It kissed the Islam in the average age. It was strong honored by the al-muqtadir of Calif of Abbasi that named for him as the principal doctor. At that very moment there were 860 persons of the medical profession to Baghdad. They were defended by the Calif to practice unless they had been examined by Sina£n and received a certificate of recording of him. Besides to use Muqae™tadir, Sina£n served also two other Califs, Qadir Billa£h and Remove successive. Sina£n tried student the norm of medical profession, and organized a brilliant administration of the hospitals of Baghdad. It is the author of a lot of works on the different subjects. 20
A big other doctor of this period that was one of the three bigger doctors of the Caliphate of the east was 'Ali Ibn 'Abba£s Al maja¼si (Vigorous Latin Abbas). It was the natal one of Ahwa£z in Persian Southwest. It was a close associate of 'Adud Al dawlah for that it wrote an encyclopedia called 'Kitab Al maliki or Ka¤mil Al sana£ah Al tibbiyyah. The people studied it intensely until the appearance of the "Qa£na¼n" (the Canon) of Ibn Sina£, that usurped his popularity. The this is more practical than the "Qa£na¼n" and more systematic than Razi Hawi. The Maliki is divided in 20 speeches, of which the first one - the half treats the theory and the remainder with the medicine practice.
The second and the third speeches d'Al-Ma1iki treat the anatomy. The French translation on this part book was published with the Arabic text. The nineteenth speech is devoted to surgery. The introduction of this solid book in three chapters of the first speech are extremely remarkable. The party of the solid introduction in the medical old work critic is interested notably. The author explains the projects of his book in which it tries to give a moderate description of the subject treated, and illustrates his method by a description of specimen of pleurisy. It begins with the definition of the disease and his aetiology. Then it mentions the four constant symptoms, the fever, the cough, the pain and dyspnoea; from which it proceeds to the prognostic and specially the indications furnished by the supta, and at last to give the treatment. In his book that the author describes the importance to attend the hospital uniformly. It writes: "And of these things that are in function on the student of this Art are that it should attend constantly the hospitals and the sick houses, the salary the continuous attention to the conditions and the circumstances of their prisoners, in the business of the professors more sharp of Medicine; and ask frequently as for the state of the patients and the apparent symptoms in them, hearing to the spirit What they indicate of voucher or devilish. If it does this, it will attain a high degree in this Art. Therefore, it falls him that desires to be a very competent doctor to follow by near these injunctions, form his character in accordance with which we mentioned there inside, and not to neglect them. If it does this, his treatment of the patient will be succeeded, the people will have the confidence in him, and it will win their affection and their respect and a good reputation; will or do it lacks the profit and the advantage of them. And Higher God knoweth better".
The better parties of the book are those that are devoted to the dietary one and 'materia medica'. It contains the rudimentary conception of the capillaire system. It includes also to interest it the observations clinics, and gives the theory proof that the uterus moves itself during the parturition c. -a -d., the child out is pushed. It not himself goes out. 21
Another doctor of this period, that did the medicine experiences was Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Al tamimi Al muqaddasi. It had been born to Jerusalem, and in 970 it went to Egypt. It wrote on materia medica and the others connect medical science. His principal work is a guide (Murshid) on materia medica that furnishes valid the news on the plants, the minerals and the something else. 22
A Christian doctor named the Well of Issac of Well of Ya¼suf of Abu Ezra Hasdai prospered to Cordoue to the court of 'Abd Al rahman III and Al hakam II. It was translator of Greek works in Arab and a science customer. It was the doctor to the Calif. It discovered a panacea called 'Al fa£ruq.' It translated using the Nicolas of monk a manuscript of Dioscorides. This manuscript treats plants were presented to 'Abd Al rahman III by the Emperor Constantinos VII. 23
Another doctor, frequented by these leaders, was Arib Ibn Al ka£tib that is dead in 976. It was also historian and wrote a chronicle of Spain and Moslem Africa. It wrote also a treaty on the gynaecology, the hygiene of the pregnant women and the babies, obstetics and the calendar. 24
Another treated on the hygiene of the pregnant women and of babies, Kitab Tadbir Al habalah waae™l Atfal authorized, was written by an Egyptian doctor named Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Yahya£ Al baladi. It prospered under the wazir Yaqub Ibn Kils (d. 990). 25
A doctor and a historian celebrates tenth century were Abu Jafar Ahmad Ibn Ibra£him Ibn Abi Khalid, ordinarily known as Ibn Al jazzar. It prospered in Qairawan, Tunis, and is dead in 1009. It is the author of a lot of works on medicine, the history and the subject others. His most of important work is Za¤d Al musa¤fir. It was translated in the Latin, Hebrew and Greek, and was extremely popular. It includes a remarkable discussion on Smallpox and the measles. It wrote also on simple drugs and composed, the plague cause in Egypt and the manner to treat it. 26
In the eleventh century, also, the true advancement in the medicine field only was done in the Moslem world. In the same century the school of Salerno, the scientific of Europe Christian school showed some activity in this field. But the literary works products there was the inferior one moved away to the a contemporary one writes, in Arab. Constantine, the African, does the intensive efforts to translate Arabic works in Latin. These translations were serviables in the medicine development in Europe.
A doctor and an important surgeon of the 11st century were Abu' l-qasim Khalaf Ibn Abbas Al zahra¤wi. It had been born to Al zahra in the suburbs of Cordoue (Spain), the center of Moslem Empire of the west. It was instructed in a distinguished university of Cordoue. It studied medicine and the other sciences with the learned ones learn from his time, and increased his knowledge and his experience while working in the big hospitals. Because of his Al hakam of capacity II did it his court doctor. It wrote to a book authorized Al tasrif, that is an encyclopedic work understanding all branches of medicine and of surgery. This book, without parallel in the medieval times, is considered to be the only source of modern surgery. It is divided in two parties; theoretical and practices. Every party consists in 15 chapters. The last section of the sums of book on the entire surgical knowledge of this time, and contains illustrations of more than 300 surgical instruments that are used even today. This section is divided in three parties. The first party treats cauterization (of injuries) and the instruments used for this goal. This treatment type was very popular to Arabia. The advantages of fire completely also were explained in him.
The second party treats surgical operations towns. It gives the methods to crush and remove the rock of the urinary vessie, the operations of eyes and the teeth, and the cutting of the organs of the body. It discusses also bandages and the treatment of ulcers and of injuries.
The third party treats the breaks of bone and the joint problems. A paralysis account caused by some defect in the vertebral rope also was given. In this party that the author gave a discussion on the profession of midwife and a description of various steps of the embryo in the uterus of the mother, and mentioned the method go out the child of the uterus of the mother using the instruments.
In the 12nd century the al-tasrif of book was translated in Latin by Gerard of Cremona; and its various editions were published to Vednise in 1497, and to Bacle in 1541. In 1778 it was published to Oxford with the original Arabic text. A copy of this edition is present in the British Museum and the one in the Library of Bodleian. His English translation was published in 1861, and French translation in 1881. The Arabic text of the book was published to Lucknow (India) in 1908, and explain the difficult words and the complicated terms used in him, an arabe-urdu dictionary authorized Lughat-e-Qutbiyyah, was composed and was published.
This al-zahrawi masterpiece held his place for the centuries as the surgery manual to Salerno, Montpelliers and other early the schools of medicine in Europe. The big European historians admit that for his primary advancement in surgery Europe is indebted to Al zahrawi. Dr. Edward Browne and Dr. Joseph Heres recognized Qasim Al zahrawi as an eminent surgeon. In his book Arabian Medictne, Dr. Arnold Campbell wrote a big treaty on Al zahrawi, that reveals, the importance of this name in the West. It unveiled that the learned ones of the west Roger Bacon (1214-49) and Goe Of Scholeic (1300-68) won the knowledge of medicine and the surgery of the books of al-zahrawi and Ibn Hurried.
Roger Bacon, John Tchanning and the learned others noticed that the al-zahrawi work helped in the configuration of the foundation of surgery in Europe. For the centuries that the learned ones of the west did the references to this work in their books. It influenced learned Moslems also, and it always is referred to and taught to the centers of Arabic Medicine in the East. 27
A big scientist of the 11st century and one of the bigger scientists at all times was Abu Ali Husain Ibn Abd Allah Ibn Sina, ordinarily known in the West as Avicenna. It was one of the bigger men than this world never produced. Although it did not belong to an influential family, and was incapable to obtain the life opportunities, nevertheless it became, while always a youth, the author of an encyclopedic work. His life was full of events, and the circumstances obliged it often to travel court to woo where sometimes the honors were soaked on him, and sometimes it was launched in the prison. But although the position can be, it took care in the reading, writing and the teaching, and always remained surrounded by a group of its students. It was philosopher, the doctor, the scientist, the poet, the philologist, the logician, the man of State and the thinker, that did the research, and contributed to the development of all sciences, and by of which effort medicine, recorded an unprecedented progress. It was hailed by the learned ones as Al shaykh Al-Ra one' i's (the Big Professor). It possessed so many qualities that, while to discuss his life history, we do not decide almost as for which aspect of his life notably more should be discussed.
Ibn Sina£, the 'the Prince of Doctors' as it was called through the medieval times, had been born in 980 to a town in the persian Province of Balkh where his father lived. In 985 his family transferred to Bukha£ra£ where, at the age of five, it began his education. At the age of 10 years it had already completed his basic education, and learned also the Qura£n by heart. It was, then, sent to the various professors under that, for the next one six years, it studied algebra, arithmetic, the astronomy, the logic, philosophy and theology. At the age of 16 it turned to medicine. During his philosophy study, Ibn Sina£ was confused by these problems that were related to the metaphysical one, but finally it was ridded of its difficulties using a commentary by a distinguished philosopher, Al fa¤ra bi, Ibn Sina¤ was a diligent student that never spent an entire day or an entire night in sleep or in no other occupation but It fell on someone To Indicate it would go to a mosque where it prayed to Allah to remove his confusion.
Ibn Sina£ declares that first it practiced medicine, not for the money good; but for his own experience and his own instruction. It was just 18 old years when it became as much of popular one as a medical practicien that it was called for the treatment of Nuh Ibn Mansa¼r Sa£ma¤ni, when the other doctors did not heal it. When Nuh Ibn Mansa¼r had resumed it as much of was pleased with Ibn Sina that it allowed for him to visit the royal library that was well stocked with the rare and valid books, and Ibn Sina£ diverted the advantage the more a lot of this occasion.
At the age of 21 Ibn Sina was to be found to the court of 'Ali Ibn Maae™mun, the King of Khwa¤rizm, that is the Prime Minister was man of learned taste. Here Ibn Sina was treated with the big respect. At last it fled of there, for the the king Mahmud Ghaznawi wanted it to his court, but it preferred the liberty to the court of the king. Then to hear about the learned taste of Qabus, the leader of Jurjan, it exposed for Ja¼rjan where it attained finally after undergoing the big hardships. But it was too last, because soon before his arrival Qa¤ba¼s was deposited. Ibn Sina¤ gave the expression to his misfortune in a poem that it composed on this occasion. It says: "When I became big no country no piece had for me; when my price brought up, I lacked a purrchaser".
At last, the circumstances caused Ibn Sina to leave this country also. Turn towards the west it came to Ray where a woman named Sayyidah governed from his small son, Majd Al dawlah Daylami. Here it was treated with the big respect and the young prince named it as his minister. The mother is angry at this appointment, Ibn Sina£ was obliged to flee once more.
Now Ibn Sina£ attained Hamadan and Jokes Al dawlah treated, the country leader, that suffered from diarrheas. When it resumed it named Ibn Sina£ as his minister. But only a current while had passed when the mutiny broke out among the soldiers, that caused his dismissal and his imprisonment. But very soon Jokes Al dawlah again was attacked by harsh diarrheas. It, therefore, Ibn called return Sina£ to undertake his treatment, been sorry with him, and restored it to his state office. The death of Jokes that al-dawlah took Ibn Sina¤ to bother, for his successor; Taj Al dawlah did not like it. Ibn Sina¤ fled and hid itself in a house. His flight generated the suspicion with the result that it was looked for after having imprisoned and. But apreds four months it escaped disguised and came to Ispahan where 'Ala Al dawlah, often known as Ibn Ka¤ka¼ya, reigned.
Here Ibn Sina£ was welcomed by Ala Al dawlah, and became his confidential counselor. Thus of new one it overcame his misfortune, and began taking a very active life. During the day it is taken care of the state questions, and spent a big party of the night in book of the lectures and in the writing of its books. To last Ibn Sina£, that was tired from activities and was weakened by the surmenage, dead in 1036 of diarrheas to the first age of 58 years. His tomb remains in the city of Hamadan.
Ibn Sina£ was a learned remarkable one that began writing before it was 17, and wrote almost on all subjects. The numerous works are attributed for him, a lot of which is voluminous. Brocklemann enlists 99 of its works again existing but it is known to be the author of 200 works. Of these 68 are on theology and the metaphysical, 11 on the astronomy, philosophy and the physics, four on poetry, and 16 on the medical science. It principally wrote in the Arab but its two persian works also are known. One of them named danishnama-e 'Ala i that was dedicated to Ala Al dawlah, is a philosophy manual. It treats the natural science, philosophy, the logic, the mathematical, the music, the metaphysical and the astronomy. The other is a small treaty on the pulse.
Among the 16 medical writings of Ibn Sina£, eight are treaty versified. They treat the questions such as the 25 signs indicating the fatal end of disease, the hygienic precepts, the proved remedies, the anatomical medmorandum, and the similar subject others. Among its books more important and popular is Al qa£na¼n (the Canon). This is a complete book and contains a million words. The this was excessively and divided admirably in the major sections and minors. The entire work was divided in five parties. The first party treats the general principles of medical treatment, the second describes the drugs simple by alphabetical order. The third party discusses the diseases of all the organs of the human body, and the quarter consists in the description of these diseases that are local at the start, and at last to affect all parties of the body. The final party is on materia medica. The Qa£na¼n was translated in Hebrew in 1270. It also was translated in the Latin by the two Gerard of Tola¨de, and almost 30 editions of this work were published in Europe. A lot of commentaries on the work were written in the 15th century. A beautiful Arabic edition of the book was published to Rome in 1593. Another edition was published in Egypt some years ago. The translation of the first volume of the book, with the exception on the part anatomical, was done in the English in 1930 by Dr. O.C. Gruner and was commented on by him and by Dr. Soubiran in 1935.
Ibn Sina£ surpassed Aristotle and Galen in subtlety dialectic, and his reasoning manner calls upon the scholastic one Means Acts. The Qa£na¼n formed the half programs it medical of the European universities in the last party of the 15th century, and continued as a text book until about 1650 in the universities of Montpellier and about Louvain. The this always is delivers it reference of the men of medical profession in the East. After the appearance of Qa£na¼n, the study of the books of al-ra£zi and the Ka¤mil al-d'Al-Majusi, that were standard works, completely almost was abandoned.
Niza£mi Ara¼di Samarqandi in his 'Chaha£r Maqalah' (Four Treaties) after relating the various works, the deep study of which is essential for the knowledge acquisition a lot of the medical science, noticed "Whoever understood to melts the first volume of the Qa£na¼n, to him nothing will remain hidden basic principles of medicine, and were it possible for Hippocrates and Galen to return to the this of life is Do the reverence to this book".
Among the other medical writings of Ibn Sina£ are Al-' Urjuzah Trust' l-tibb, and his treaty on the drugs of cordiac. The last lies probably support in the importance to the Qa£na¼n. Two other minors works, to know, Qawanin or 'The Laws' and the Huda¼d Al tibb (The limitations of medical science) also are known. Ibn Sina£ wrote also a treaty on Diarrheas. It is also the author of a book called Mabdaae™waae™l-Maae™a d, that contains an interesting chapter on the possibility of the production of phenomena parapsychologiques exceptional.
Next to al-qa£na¼n some other works of Ibn Sina£ also were translated in Latin, and thus they influenced the development of science and of philosophy in Europe. In his 'Arabic Medicine', Dr. Campbell enlists these translations in detail. 28
Another Moslem doctor of this period, that had also a knowledge of astronomy, the mathematical and the literature, was Abu' l it Salt Umayyah Ibn Abd Al aziz the Salt of Abiae™l of Ibn. It had been born in 1067-68 to Denis, and lived in Seville. It traveled towards the east and came to Egypt where there remained for 20 years. In the middle of this period it was imprisoned and was banished by the Afzal of Emperor. It went to Alexandria and of there to Mehdiya where it became associated Yahya£ Ibn Tamim, the leader of this territory.
End of the 11st century that it tried student a sunk boat to Alexandria but could not succeed. It was the author of several works more medical, more astronomical and more mathematical. It wrote also to some treaties called rasa£ae™il Al misriyyah that contains its observations on the people and the things in Egypt. Its principal and important works include a treaty on the simple drugs (translated in Latin), a treaty on the Logic (translated in Spaniard) and a treaty on the astrolabe. It composed also some towards that are very said to appeal. Abul-Sa1t wrote also a treaty on the music that was translated in Hebrew. 29
Now we mention some members of family of Zuhr of Ibn that was the biggest medical family of Spain. This family belonged to the tribe of Bana¼ Azd. At first tenth century it himself is established to Sha¤tibah (Jativa) in the East of Spain. The Spanish ancestor of this family was named Zuhr, therefore the surname Ibn Zuhr.
The member more glorious, except Ibn Zuhr, of this big medical family of Moslem Spain, was Abu' l-ala Zuhr Ibn Abu Marwan 'Abd Al malik Ibn Muhammad Ibn Marwan Al ishbili. Abul-ala£' prospered in east Spain. It lived in Cordoue. It was involved himself in the study of Hadith and of literature. Later it turned towards medicine. It was a distinguished doctor, and had a knowledge completes medicine. The people of Maghrib felt proud of him and of his family. It was the sycophant of Al mutamid, the last king of Abbsi of Seville, that governed of
1068-1091. When Seville was conquered by the Berber Murabitin (Almoravides) in 1091, it became wazir to the conqueror Ya¼suf Ibn Tashfin that governed until 1106. His normal name, Al wazir Ala Zuhr was corrupt in the Latin translations in a lot in a manner; as Alguazir, Albuleizer. It is dead to Cordoue in 1130. His body was carried to Seville where it was buried.
Ala Zuhr is the author of a lot of medical works. One of the are Kitab Al nukat Al tibbiyyah (the principal principles of medicine) that is a practical guide containing the references of special one to the climatological and pathological conditions in Marrakush. It furnishes supplementary the news on the deontology and various the medical subject others. 30
The member more famous and glorious of the biggest medical family of Moslem Spain, the family of Zuhr of Ibn is Abu Marwan 'Abi of lbn of al-malik of Abd' l-ala' Ibn Zuhr, ordinarily known as Ibn Zuhr (Latin Avenzoar). It had been born about 1091-1094, and is dead in 1161-62. It was a natal one of Seville (Spain), and was the biggest doctor of his time, in the East and in the West. It is distinguished other doctors in that it consecrated his entire attention to the medical school. It served under Al murabita¼n and when they were beaten by the Almohades (Al muwahhidun) it became doctor and Minister to the first leader of Muwahhid (1130-1163) Abd Al ibn 'Ali. It was the author of at least six medical works. One of these are the Kita b Al iqtisad proud Islah Al anfus wa' l-ajsa¤d. It was written for the "Murabit" prince Ibrahim Ibn Ya¼suf Ibn Tashfin that was the son of the minister. As the title suggests, it treats souls just like with the bodies. At the start it gives a psychology summary. More it treats therapeutic and hygiene.
The second book that is the work of the author more important is the Kita¤b Al taisir fiae™l Muda£wat waae™l Tadbir (the simplification Book about therapeutic and the treatment) that was written to the request of his friend and of admirer, Ibn Hurried. It treats generalities of medicine and some special subjects. It contains a cared one for study of pathological conditions and therapeutic pertinent. At the end of this book that the author gave an antidotory or the form called Ja¤mi' (the collector) in which it had collected recipes. The Taisir was translated in Latin and Hebrew.
The Taisir contains a lot of descriptions clinics as the tumors of mediastinal, pericarditis, intestinal phthisis, the paralyses of pharyngeal, the inflammation of the ear and the environment mange. The author recommends the tracheotomy and the nutrition artificial by the esophagus and the rectum. It recognized that the air comes from the marshes is nocuous. It recommended strong venesection. It was the first one to describe itch mitl. (Acarus scaliei). Thus it was the first important parasitologist since Alexander of Taralles (the second half of the sixth century).
The third book of Ibn Zuhr is Kita¤b Al aghdhiyyah (the Book of the things of food) that was written for the first leader of Muwahhid 'Abd Al that governed of 1130 to 1163. This book treats various types of food and their usage according to the seasons, with the drugs and simple hygienes. It shows also the usefulness of various rocks of panel. 31
Until the end 11st century, all the medical works in the Moslem world were written in Arab. The Arabic language was the only means to express the religious and philosophical ideas through the Moslem world. Even the works of Moslem nos were written in Arab. But for the first time, in the 11st century, the medical literature was produced in Persian also. A doctor, Abu of al-vacarme of Zain' l-fada' the it isma£ae™il Ibn Al- Husain came to the court of Khwa¤rizm and wrote some works on the medicine in Persian. It wrote also in the Arab. Among these the most important one was a medical encyclopedia, the Dhakhira-e-Khwarizm Shahi, the treasure of the king of Khwa£rizm. It was written for Qutb the al-vacarme Muhammad shah (1097-1127).
The Dhakhira consists in almost 450,000 words. It carefully is very divided in the various headings and in the various subtitle. Principally, it is divided in nine books. A tenth book on the simple drugs had been added later. Secondarily, it is divided in 75 speeches and 1107 chapters. Six chapters of the eighth speech of the sixth book are devoted to the local diseases of heart, and a part of the 13rd speech treats Istisqa¤. The Tadhkirah was translated in Hebrew. One has lithographied the translation of urdu of this book is used to India and Pakistan.
The author compiled some others deliver comparatively short. For the wazir of successor of al-vacarme of Qutb. It composed a treaty authorized Aqhrad
Have Tibb. It compiled another treated on the drugs and the pharmacy. It wrote also a condensed edition of Tadhkirah authorized Khafi '. Khafi is a drift of Khaf, meaning a shoe prenanse. The book was written in two long volumes for that the traveler could take every one of these volumes in a shoe prenanse. Isma£il Ibn Al hunayn is also the author of some other works. 32
The biggest doctor of the 13rd century was 'Abu of al-vacarme of Ala' l-hasan Ali lbn Abi' l-hazm Ibn Al nafis Al qarshi, that had been born and is dead to Damask at the age of 80, probably in 1288-1289 in Egypt, It wrote a lot of works on medicine and the subject others. As the source of its writings it used his memory, his experience, its observations and its deductions, and counted very small on the other sources. It often was quoted by the other writers. It established an allocation for the hospital of Mansuri to Cairo.
Ibn Al nafis is the author of a lot of commentaries on the al-hadith (the Prophetic traditions) and on the medical writings of Hippocrates, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq and Ibn Sina£. It wrote also some medical works. One of the are a treaty on the diseases of eve and another on the system authorized Al aghdhiyyah of minimum of al-mukhtar of Kitab. Among all its writings it east better his commentary on the Qa£na¼n, Kitab Muae™jiz Al qa£na¼n (called also Al- Mujiz trust' l-tibb). It is divided in four sections, (1) the generalities on the theory and the medicine practice; (2) victuals and the drugs, simple and composed; (3) the diseases of the individual organs; (4) the other diseases, their causes, their symptoms and their remedies. This book appreciated the a lot of popularities. A lot of commentaries aecover were written. It was translated in the Turk and Hebrew.
Ibn Al nafis wrote another commentary on the anatomical party of the Qa£na¼n. It is interested extremely from the standpoint physiologique. Ibn Al nafis describes the view of Sina£ of Ibn on the circulation in the heart and the lungs, and repeats the fragments of Galenic as describes by Ibn Sina£. It vigorous has indisputably then these views. It declared that the blood streaks cannot pass right to the left ventricule by visible or invisible pores in the septum, but must go through the artery veineuse to the lungs, mixed there, with the air, the go through the 'the vein of arterious' in the vertical left and forms there it "the vital spirit". The theory of Nafis of Ibn is extreme importance. Ibn Nafis is one of the principal one for the racers of William Harvey and the biggest physiologiste of the Means Acts in the West. 33

REFERENCES
1, Wasiti, Hakim Nayyr, Tibb Al Arabic, (the translation of urdu of Arabic Medicine, by Edward G. Browne, Lahore, 1954, p. 368.
2. Briffault, Robert, To Do It Humanity, Islamic Foundation, Lahore, 1980, P. 201.
3. Sarton, George, the Introduction to the History of Science, the Institution of Carnegie of Washington, 1950, Flight. III, p. 1729.
4. Wasiti, Hakim Nayyr, Moslem Contribution to Medicine, Lahore, 1962, p. 2.
5. The baby carriage, the Rom, Islam And the Arabs, George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., London, 1958, p. 178.
6. Wasiti, op. cit., p. 4.
7. Ibid.
8. Elgood, the Medical History of Persian And Moslem Caliphate of the east, p. 179.
9. Arnold & Guillaume, The Legs of Islam, Oxford. 1949, p. 221.
10. Wasiti, op. cit., p. 10.
11. Al qifti, 'Ali Ibn Yusuf, Ta£rikh Al hukama, Leipzig, 1903, p. 158.
12. Sarton, op. cit., p. 573.
13. Ibid. p. 574.
14. Ibid.
15. Wasiti, Tibb Al Arabic, pages. 52-56.
16. Ibid., p. 609.
17. Ibid., Wasiti, op. cit., p. 65.
18. Al qifti, op. cit., p. 171. Flight. I, p. Sarton, op. quoted.
19. Ibid., p. 639.
20. Wasiti, op. cit., pages. 56-57. A1-Qif;i, op. cit., p. 190.
21. Wasiti, pages. 73-77.
22. Sarton, op. cit., p. 679.
23. Ibid., p. 680.
24. Ibid., Haji Khalifa, Kashf Al zunun, Istanbul, p. 949.
25. Ibid., p. 679.
26. Haji Khalifa, Kashf Al zunun, Istanbul, 1943, Flight I p. 946.
27. Ibid, p. 411. Wasiti, op. quoted. pages, 343-362.
28. Al qifti, op. cit., p. 413. ; Elgood, op. cit., pages. 203, 205.
29. Al qifti, op. cit., p. 80. ; Sarton, op. cit., Flight. 11, I To Separate, p. 230.
30. Ibid.,
31. Ibid, pages. 231-233.
32. Ibid, p. 234; Wa£siti, op. cit., p. 128.
33. Ibid., p. 447. ; Sarton, op. cit., II of Party, p. 1099.